Marcus Agrippa Read online

  Riding at the head of three legions, Caesar returned to Rome (adventus)in January 41 BCE.227 The crossing from Greece had left him debilitated, causing many to think he was dying.228 The Senate decreed that celebrations of thanksgiving should be held to mark the return of civil peace, and Caesar was asked to lead them.229 He erected statues at the Temple of Concord and led the state in sacrifices and prayers. The thorny issue of finding land on which to resettle the thousands of retiring legionaries still remained to be solved. It would be a reckoning for those who had supported the wrong side. The towns in Italy known for their hostility to the triumvirs were now called to account for their choice and all their territories, slaves and farm equipment were confiscated.230 The displaced landowners, now a new class of poor, had little choice but to turn to friends and family for help, or to migrate to Rome hoping to be accepted on the list for the free distribution of grain.231 Caesar was not unsympathetic to their plight, but having no money to purchase the land, and faced with angry troops – who even challenged him on a visit to the theatre where he barely managed to escape with his life – his options were limited.232

  The Perusine War

  In Antonius’ absence from Rome, his interests were being represented by his brother Lucius (who had been elected consul for that year) and his wife Fulvia.233 Married to Antonius in 47 or 46, they had two sons together, M. Antonius Antyllus and Iullus Antonius, and were a formidable political force. They schemed to remove Caesar from the scene in the hope of seeing their blood relative rule Rome uncontested.234 Accusing Fulvia of meddling in politics and seeking power for herself, Caesar divorced Clodia, telling her mother – who he could not abide for her bad temper – that he returned her a virgin.235 Fulvia meanwhile toured Italy to stir up trouble for Caesar by reminding the veterans of the role her brother Marcus had played in securing their futures, pointedly reminding them that Caesar had been ill most of the time, and tried to have the land allocations delayed until he returned from the East to ensure his men received what was due them, whereafter both men should share the credit.236 Fulvia’s patience exhausted, she publicly stated her allegiance to her brother and effectively stood in opposition to Caesar.237 She was intent on war and, with remarkable alacrity, Fulvia raised new legions in Italy and for a while some even occupied Rome itself. L. Antonius rallied his troops at Praeneste (Palestrina), which he made his base of operations.238 Lucius requested reinforcements from the legions loyal to his brother in Gaul under the command of Q. Fufius Calenus, P. Ventidius Bassus and C. Assinius Pollio. Still in the East, M. Antonius was entirely unaware of the brewing conflict.

  Caesar had four legions in Italy, but he urgently recalled Salvidienus and the six legions he had with him in the Hispanic Provinces and, obeying orders, crossed the Alps unhindered.239 Meanwhile, food supplies in the capital were dwindling owing to Sex. Pompeius’ successful blockade of Sicily, and what grain there was was being consumed by the soldiery.240 Caesar struck back and despatched cavalry to Bruttium where Sextus was known to be raiding.241 Lucius accused Caesar of provoking a war between Antonius and his children, and Caesar retorted back that it was Lucius who was intent on war and on breaking up the triumvirate, not he. Finally the troops who had served under Iulius Caesar and Antonius sent representatives to intercede and broker a settlement between the parties, but negotiations broke down because they distrusted each other.242 War was now inevitable. Caesar had his four legions at Capua supplemented with six brought by Salvidienus, plus several Praetorian Cohorts; Lucius had the six accorded him as consul.243 The soil of Italy would soon be turned red with the blood of her own sons. Meanwhile the coasts were already under attack. Ahenobarbus was patrolling the Adriatic with seventy ships, two legions, units of archers and slingers, light-armed troops and gladiators, and using them to devastate the regions subject to the triumvirs. He attacked Brundisium, blockaded the inhabitants behind their walls, ravaged the surrounding territory, captured some of Caesar’s triremes and burned others.244 Caesar deployed one of Salvidienus’ legions to relieve Brundisium.245 Both sides ran recruitment drives throughout Italy. The communities under threat from colonization saw Lucius as a champion of their cause and rallied to him, the settled veterans turned to Caesar.

  Leaving Lepidus in Rome with two legions, Caesar departed to lead his campaign in person, likely with Agrippa at his side.246 The war began when a mutiny broke out among two of Lucius’ legions at Alba Longa. Caesar arrived at the city and laid siege to it.247 Learning that C. Furnius was bringing reinforcements for Lucius’ army, Caesar attacked his rear. Furnius retreated to Sentinum (a place near modern Sassoferrato in Umbria) on the Via Flaminia.248 It turned out to be a futile exercise. News arrived of a setback in Rome. Three cohorts had since taken the city under cover of darkness.249 Lepidus had proved unable to mount any form of resistance and had fled to Caesar.250 From his base at Praeneste, L. Antonius had entered with his main army, cavalry and gladiators. Lucius had even been welcomed by the inhabitants. He spoke to the citizens dressed in his military regalia and proclaimed Caesar and Lepidus were enemies. He proclaimed his brother Marcus would voluntarily resign, end the triumvirate and restore the old Res Publica. Believing Rome to be on his side Lucius sped north to join Ventidius and Pollio; he had moved on Salvidienus who had taken up the siege at Sentium in Caesar’s absence.251 He breached the gates, plundered the city and torched it. Neighbouring Nurcia surrendered without a fight.252

  Perhaps recognizing his own increasingly evident failings as a military man, Caesar now turned to his friend Agrippa, whose role is better documented from this point on. He gave Agrippa charge of his legions and tasked him with taking Sutrium (Sutri).253 Likely promoted to the position of legatus, Agrippa marched the 66km (41 miles) northwards from Rome to the town in Etruria (map 2). Its location on the Via Cassia was strategically important to Lucius as it was one of two main roads on the western side of Italy by which he could reach Pollio and Ventidius in Gallia Narbonensis.254 Agrippa believed that once Sentium had fallen Lucius would turn his attention to Sutrium.255 He entered and quickly secured the city, whose ancient stone walls clung to a narrow hill of volcanic tufa, and were surrounded by ravines. A slender neck on the western side alone connected it with the surrounding country. The plan was a simple one: Agrippa would draw Lucius’ forces to him while Salvidienus would arrive by way of the Via Flaminia to entrap him. ‘It all turned out as Agrippa had anticipated,’ writes Appian.256 When Lucius received information that Agrippa was at Sutrium he took the bait, turned around and headed back with celerity to the hilltop town. However, he found his way north was blocked by the arrival of Salvidienus’ troops. Appian says that Salvidienus was himself being trailed by Pollio and Ventidius and Lucius was trying to move north to join up with them.257 He could not go forward and Agrippa’s men could strike at his rear. It was clear Lucius could not get through and he needed a way out. ‘Salvidienus and Agrippa harassed him on both sides,’ writes Appian, ‘watching especially for an opportunity to catch him in the defiles’. 258 However, the same ravines around the town provided him with an escape route and, once free of Sutrium, he headed with his army to Perusia (Perugia) some 150km (93 miles) to the north.259 Agrippa must have been bitterly disappointed to have failed to capture or kill Lucius on his first major command; but he would soon have a second chance.

  Autumn was turning to winter, says Appian, when L. Antonius was forced to hunker down in Perusia.260 This city was to give its name to the entire war – Bellum Perusinum, the Perusine War.262 Agrippa and Salvidienus followed him there and they were soon joined by Caesar.261 Like Sutrium, Perusia was a hilltop town with formidable stone walls of massive travertine blocks erected between the sixth and third centuries BCE by Rome’s old enemies, the Etruscans.263 Its single arched gateways and thick wooden doors were locked firmly shut to keep out the invaders. The only way to take the place was to lay siege to it and starve the occupants into submission. All they needed was time, but Caesar and his generals were impatient for a r
esolution. Rather than watching their troops stand around in the cold and damp they ordered them to take out their entrenching tools and saws and set to work. A circumvallation of circuit wall with parapet and ditch measuring 56 stades (10,080m or 33,600ft) in circumference was constructed with extensions reaching into the Tiber River to prevent the defenders from escaping, and relief troops and supplies from getting in.264 With time on his side, Caesar would wait for Lucius, now trapped inside, to surrender. When not digging, sawing or hammering, the troops on both sides melted lead into sling shot (glandes). Crudely made ‘bullets’ have been discovered around Perugia bearing the names of Caesar and Salvidienus.265 The absence of bullets with Agrippa’s name implies he was the junior partner to Salvidienus. However, the Perusine War would provide an opportunity for Agrippa to show his mettle. Word was received that Pollio and Ventidius planned, or were already on their way, to relieve Lucius. Leaving Salvidienus in charge of the siege, Caesar and Agrippa roused their men and sped off across the Apennines to intercept Lucius’ allies before they could reach Perusia. It is in the Perusine War that Agrippa emerges for the first time as a competent commander of forces on land.

  Plancus discovered and routed one of Caesar’s legions as it was marching to Rome. Pollio and Ventidius had mobilized their armies in late 41 BCE at the insistence of Fulvia, and were to be joined by Plancus.266 Caesar’s scouts spotted them as they approached. Perusia and he and Agrippa moved to block their progress. The appearance of Caesar’s deputies surprised the commanders from Gaul who avoided a head-on clash by veering off to neighbouring cities – Plancus to Spoletium (Spoleto), Pollio to Ravenna, Ventidius to Ariminium. Caesar placed detachments in front of each city to prevent them escaping and returned to Perusia. Once there, he ordered the ditch deepened and widened to 30ft in either dimension, raised the height of the parapet and erected 1,500 watchtowers along it, spaced 60ft apart. Tactically sited redoubts and emplacements provided protection for his men from which to launch attacks with artillery.267 As they expanded the fortifications many died in fierce hand-to-hand fighting with Lucius’ gladiators who made sorties from the besieged city. When completed Caesar could wait and let the gnawing feeling of hunger take effect.268

  On 31 January Lucius tried to break out of the city with a unit of troops. Caesar was waiting for him. His soldiers, who included men of the Praetorian Cohorts, forcibly drove Lucius back.269 His allies now decided to assemble at Perusia to overwhelm Caesar’s siege. His deputies learned of their approach and stationed greater numbers of troops on the road to keep the enemy away.270 They successfully diverted them to Fulginiae or Fulginium (Foligno), a town 37km (22 miles) down the Via Flaminia and northwest of Perusia.

  There Agrippa besieged them, and they [Pollio and Ventidius] lighted fires as signals to Lucius. Ventidius and Asinius [Pollio] were of the opinion that they should go forward and fight, but Plancus said that, as they were between Octavius and Agrippa, they had best await events. The opinion of Plancus prevailed. Those in Perusia rejoiced when they saw the fires, but when Ventidius delayed his arrival they conjectured that he, too, was in difficulties, and when the fires ceased they thought that he had been destroyed.271

  Holing them up in Fulginiae served another purpose: Lucius was denied their assistance in Perusia, against which Caesar continued to apply pressure. The situation inside the city was dreadful:

  There he [Lucius] took an account of the remaining provisions, and forbade distributing any to the slaves, and prohibited them from escaping, in case the enemy should gain better knowledge of his desperate situation. The slaves wandered about in crowds, threw themselves upon the ground in the city, and between the city and their forts, and ate grass or green leaves wherever they could find them. Those who died Lucius buried in long trenches, fearing that if he burned them, the enemy would discover what was taking place, and, if they were unburied, disease would result from the poisonous exhalations.272

  Lucius’ men pleaded with him to lead them in an organised break out. Ordering his men to equip themselves with iron tools, ladders and wicker baskets, he attempted several times to attack Caesar’s defences, by filling in ditches and tearing at the parapets, but the circumvallation held.273 Coming at different sections of the circuit wall, the attacks stretched Caesar’s resources, but they held under pressure. Despite gallant and determined fighting, Lucius eventually sounded the retreat.274 Seeing the men withdraw, Caesar’s men beat their gladii against their shields, leading many of Lucius’ men to swing around and make a renewed attempt to scale the parapet, which failed again.

  During the last days of February Lucius finally realized the hopelessness of his situation. He was trapped, running out of supplies and relief was not coming. He sent a message to Caesar asking for terms: a general pardon for his men who had originally come from Caesar’s side.275 The reply came that he would only allow the veterans a pardon – but not the young recruits. Lucius surrendered. Caesar’s troops cheered their leader and acclaimed him imperator.276 As the defeated men emerged out of the city, Caesar’s own troops cheered as they welcomed back old comrades. Caesar was touched by the scene and extended his pardon to all of the men.277 He was in not such a generous mood to the city fathers: they had caused rebellion and for the crime they were executed.278 The inhabitants were required to abandon their town and watch as Caesar’s soldiers entered and pillaged it. Meanwhile, a fire broke out and the entire town was consumed in flames.279

  Defeated L. Antonius’ deputies fled – to Brundisium, Ravenna, Tarentum to meet up with Ahenobarbus and Murcus – pursued by Caesar and his generals. Between them, Lucius’ allies had thirteen legions and almost 6,500 cavalry.280 Agrippa went after Plancus. He intercepted him and his two legions 52km (32 miles) northwest of Fulginiae at Cameria (Camerino). Rather than resort to the sword, instead he tried diplomacy to persuade them to desert their commander and join Caesar’s side. He was successful, adding almost 12,000 men to the Caesarian cause without bloodshed. Indeed, Agrippa was the only one of Caesar’s generals able to convince an enemy to defect without having to fight to achieve it. Plancus himself slipped away to the coast. With their rebellion broken, Fulvia fled with her children to Brundisium, with 3,000 cavalry and Plancus aboard five ships bound for Macedonia. Pollio, however, was still at large and could yet pose a threat to the Caesarians. Meanwhile, Caesar rode to Gallia Transalpina. Defecting to him, Fufius Calenus, son of the governor of Gallia Narbonensis, robbed Antonius of eleven legions who were now sworn to support Caesar.281 To ensure their loyalty he replaced all senior officers of these units with his own men under the command of Salvidienus who was based on the Rhône, presumably at Colonia Copia Felix Munatia Lugdunum.282 Caesar returned to Rome with Agrippa.

  For his service and initiative Agrippa was rewarded with the post of praetor urbanus which he assumed around March of 40 BCE.283 This was an ancient magistracy stretching back to the age of the kings of Rome and was ranked first of the sixteen praetors under the Republic. The office was responsible for the administration of justice in the city.284 At the age of 24 he was well below the legal age required to take the position but it is an indication of Caesar’s growing power that he could install his man with complete disregard for the rules, and of his confidence in Agrippa to do the job.285 Early in July Agrippa supervised the staging of the Ludi Apollinares, which were the responsibility of the praetor urbanus.286 These games had been established as a regular fixture in the Roman calendar since 211 or 210 BCE and were based in religious observance.287 They honoured Apollo, in accordance with the Oracles of Marcius, which had predicted the military disaster at Cannae. Rather than gladiatorial blood games, as sponsor, Agrippa was required to put on a ceremonial parade (pompa), horse races, as well as stage performances, including praetextae – a type of tragic drama which took Roman historical figures as the subject matter; they were also referred to as Ludi Circenses because they were held in the Circus Maximus, during public holidays held between 6 and 13 July.288 Dio records that Agrippa ‘
prided himself upon his production of the game called “Troy”, which was performed by the boys of the nobility’.289 Through the games, Agrippa discovered he had an interest for producing large-scale public spectacles. To pay for the games Agrippa would have received some money from the state treasury, but probably had to supplement the budget with his own funds, no doubt enhanced by additional contributions from his rich friend. Dio also makes the curious remark that Agrippa was ‘giving himself airs in various other ways on the strength of his being an intimate friend of Caesar’.290 Was the sudden surge of fame and power going to Agrippa’s head? If true, perhaps the reason for it was that before Caesar left for Gaul, he had delegated the entire defence of Italy to Agrippa.291 It must have been intoxicating to the young man more used to relative anonymity. Dio then suggests that, taking advantage of the fact that Agrippa’s focus was on the Ludi Circenses, Sextus crossed into southern Italy, causing havoc wherever he went.292 Learning of the raids, Agrippa instinctively knew what to do. He quickly mobilized his troops and set off to deal with the problem.293 Agrippa soon chased Pompeius away, but as a precaution he ‘left a garrison at certain points and sailed back again’.294 He then returned to his praetorian duties in Rome.

  Treaty of Brundisium

  The tension between the triumvirs continued. Caesar considered himself above both Antonius and Lepidus. He now had more than forty legions, but no ships.295 Antonius’ success at Philippi, however, had raised his popularity among the retired and serving troops. He had a sizeable army of his own plus 200 ships.296 To rebalance the odds, Caesar needed an ally. Taking advantage of Lepidus’ frustration at having been deprived of his province, he returned Africa to him along with six legions he suspected of loyalty to Antonius, an act calculated to secure his allegiance over the other triumvir’s.297 Indulging his passions in the East M. Antonius belatedly learned that Caesar had seized his Gallic provinces and all the legions stationed there. Incensed by the report he sent messages to Sex. Pompeius to side with him and declared himself an enemy of Caesar.298 In August 40 BCE Antonius and Ahenobarbus, operating from Greece, and Pompeius in Sicily, united in an invasion of Italy.299 Along the Adriatic Coast, Antonius captured the colonia of Sipontum (Siponto in Puglia), and marched on the strategic port of Brundisium. He constructed a circumvallation around the city, installed his artillery and settled down for a long siege.300 In the south of Italy, Pompeius sent his deputy Menodorus to take Sardinia, while he attempted to capture Consentia and Thurii; he failed to take the latter and had to settle in for a long siege of the former.301 Back from Gaul and now facing war on two fronts, Caesar assessed the rapidly deteriorating situation.302 For the moment the threat posed by Sextus could wait. To deal with Antonius, he ordered Agrippa to Sipontum, and P. Servilius Rullus to Brundisium with five cohorts of Caesar’s soldiers.303 Agrippa called out the veterans who were settled in the coloniae and they initially followed him, under the impression they were heading to fight Pompeius; but learning that what had happened had been done at Antonius’ own request, and being in no mood to fight him, they turned around and went back secretly. Caesar was on his way to Brundisium and finding the veterans heading towards him, he stopped them and tried to persuade them to follow him.304 When he reached the port he found he could do nothing despite having the larger number of troops. Then, unexpectedly, Caesar then fell sick at Canusium (modern Canosa di Puglia). Meanwhile news reached him that Agrippa had taken the city of Sipontum by storm and secured it, and Pompeius had been repulsed from Thurii, though he was still attempting to take Consentia.305 Rullus was not so lucky. Coming to assist Caesar at Brundisium with 1,500 cavalry, Antonius, incensed at his setbacks, attacked Rullus by complete surprise and captured them all.